Epidemiology and population health

by | Apr 22, 2025 | healthcare

a cohesive response that addresses the following:

Briefly summarize the epidemiologic differences among the three diseases and how principles of epidemiology are being appliedor could be appliedto address COVID-19.
Are there any lessons learned from the use of epidemiology in the eradication of smallpox and polio that could be applied to COVID-19?
Evaluate the benefits of addressing this health problem at the population level versus the individual level. Support your Discussion with information from this weeks Learning Resources and articles you have located in the Walden Library.

Sample solution

Dante Alighieri played a critical role in the literature world through his poem Divine Comedy that was written in the 14th century. The poem contains Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. The Inferno is a description of the nine circles of torment that are found on the earth. It depicts the realms of the people that have gone against the spiritual values and who, instead, have chosen bestial appetite, violence, or fraud and malice. The nine circles of hell are limbo, lust, gluttony, greed and wrath. Others are heresy, violence, fraud, and treachery. The purpose of this paper is to examine the Dante’s Inferno in the perspective of its portrayal of God’s image and the justification of hell. 

In this epic poem, God is portrayed as a super being guilty of multiple weaknesses including being egotistic, unjust, and hypocritical. Dante, in this poem, depicts God as being more human than divine by challenging God’s omnipotence. Additionally, the manner in which Dante describes Hell is in full contradiction to the morals of God as written in the Bible. When god arranges Hell to flatter Himself, He commits egotism, a sin that is common among human beings (Cheney, 2016). The weakness is depicted in Limbo and on the Gate of Hell where, for instance, God sends those who do not worship Him to Hell. This implies that failure to worship Him is a sin.


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God is also depicted as lacking justice in His actions thus removing the godly image. The injustice is portrayed by the manner in which the sodomites and opportunists are treated. The opportunists are subjected to banner chasing in their lives after death followed by being stung by insects and maggots. They are known to having done neither good nor bad during their lifetimes and, therefore, justice could have demanded that they be granted a neutral punishment having lived a neutral life. The sodomites are also punished unfairly by God when Brunetto Lattini is condemned to hell despite being a good leader (Babor, T. F., McGovern, T., & Robaina, K. (2017). While he commited sodomy, God chooses to ignore all the other good deeds that Brunetto did.

Finally, God is also portrayed as being hypocritical in His actions, a sin that further diminishes His godliness and makes Him more human. A case in point is when God condemns the sin of egotism and goes ahead to commit it repeatedly. Proverbs 29:23 states that “arrogance will bring your downfall, but if you are humble, you will be respected.” When Slattery condemns Dante’s human state as being weak, doubtful, and limited, he is proving God’s hypocrisy because He is also human (Verdicchio, 2015). The actions of God in Hell as portrayed by Dante are inconsistent with the Biblical literature. Both Dante and God are prone to making mistakes, something common among human beings thus making God more human.

To wrap it up, Dante portrays God is more human since He commits the same sins that humans commit: egotism, hypocrisy, and injustice. Hell is justified as being a destination for victims of the mistakes committed by God. The Hell is presented as being a totally different place as compared to what is written about it in the Bible. As a result, reading through the text gives an image of God who is prone to the very mistakes common to humans thus ripping Him off His lofty status of divine and, instead, making Him a mere human. Whether or not Dante did it intentionally is subject to debate but one thing is clear in the poem: the misconstrued notion of God is revealed to future generations.

 

References

Babor, T. F., McGovern, T., & Robaina, K. (2017). Dante’s inferno: Seven deadly sins in scientific publishing and how to avoid them. Addiction Science: A Guide for the Perplexed, 267.

Cheney, L. D. G. (2016). Illustrations for Dante’s Inferno: A Comparative Study of Sandro Botticelli, Giovanni Stradano, and Federico Zuccaro. Cultural and Religious Studies, 4(8), 487.

Verdicchio, M. (2015). Irony and Desire in Dante’s” Inferno” 27. Italica, 285-297.

Here’s a cohesive response addressing the epidemiologic differences among diseases, the application of epidemiology to COVID-19, lessons learned from smallpox and polio eradication, and the benefits of population-level interventions.

Epidemiologic Differences Among Diseases and Application to COVID-19

Epidemiology, the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems (CDC, 2012), provides a framework for understanding and addressing infectious diseases. While the core principles remain consistent, the specific epidemiologic characteristics of diseases like smallpox, polio, and COVID-19 differ significantly, influencing the strategies for their control.  

  • Smallpox: Characterized by a highly visible, acute illness with a relatively long incubation period (7-19 days) and no asymptomatic transmission. Crucially, humans were the only reservoir, and lifelong immunity followed infection or vaccination (Fenner et al., 1988). The case fatality rate was also significant. Epidemiologically, this meant that surveillance and containment were feasible through identification of symptomatic cases and ring vaccination.  

  • Polio: Primarily affects young children and is caused by a virus that can lead to paralysis. A significant proportion of infections are asymptomatic, making surveillance challenging. Humans are the reservoir. While there is no cure, effective vaccines (both inactivated and oral) provide immunity (World Health Organization, n.d.). The existence of asymptomatic carriers complicated early control efforts.  

  • COVID-19: Caused by a novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, it presents with a wide spectrum of illness severity, ranging from asymptomatic to critical. A significant characteristic is pre-symptomatic and asymptomatic transmission, making early detection and containment difficult. The virus has demonstrated the ability to mutate, leading to variants with altered transmissibility and virulence. While vaccines have been developed, immunity may wane over time, and breakthrough infections can occur (CDC, 2024). The presence of animal res

Here’s a cohesive response addressing the epidemiologic differences among diseases, the application of epidemiology to COVID-19, lessons learned from smallpox and polio eradication, and the benefits of population-level interventions.

Epidemiologic Differences Among Diseases and Application to COVID-19

Epidemiology, the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems (CDC, 2012), provides a framework for understanding and addressing infectious diseases. While the core principles remain consistent, the specific epidemiologic characteristics of diseases like smallpox, polio, and COVID-19 differ significantly, influencing the strategies for their control.  

  • Smallpox: Characterized by a highly visible, acute illness with a relatively long incubation period (7-19 days) and no asymptomatic transmission. Crucially, humans were the only reservoir, and lifelong immunity followed infection or vaccination (Fenner et al., 1988). The case fatality rate was also significant. Epidemiologically, this meant that surveillance and containment were feasible through identification of symptomatic cases and ring vaccination.  

  • Polio: Primarily affects young children and is caused by a virus that can lead to paralysis. A significant proportion of infections are asymptomatic, making surveillance challenging. Humans are the reservoir. While there is no cure, effective vaccines (both inactivated and oral) provide immunity (World Health Organization, n.d.). The existence of asymptomatic carriers complicated early control efforts.  

  • COVID-19: Caused by a novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, it presents with a wide spectrum of illness severity, ranging from asymptomatic to critical. A significant characteristic is pre-symptomatic and asymptomatic transmission, making early detection and containment difficult. The virus has demonstrated the ability to mutate, leading to variants with altered transmissibility and virulence. While vaccines have been developed, immunity may wane over time, and breakthrough infections can occur (CDC, 2024). The presence of animal res

Application of Epidemiology to COVID-19:

Epidemiological principles have been and continue to be fundamental in addressing the COVID-19 pandemic:

  • Surveillance: Establishing systems to track the number of cases, hospitalizations, deaths, and variants over time and across different populations to understand the pandemic’s trajectory and identify outbreaks. This includes syndromic surveillance, case-based surveillance, and genomic surveillance.
  • Contact Tracing: Identifying individuals who have come into contact with confirmed cases to interrupt transmission by testing and isolating them. This was crucial in the early stages to understand transmission patterns.
  • Risk Factor Identification: Investigating factors that increase the risk of infection, severe disease, and death (e.g., age, comorbidities) to target interventions.
  • Evaluation of Interventions: Assessing the effectiveness of various public health measures such as mask mandates, social distancing, lockdowns, and vaccination campaigns in reducing transmission and disease severity. This involves analyzing epidemiological data before and after the implementation of interventions.
  • Mathematical Modeling: Using statistical models to predict the spread of the virus under different scenarios, inform policy decisions, and allocate resources.  
  • Vaccine Effectiveness and Safety Monitoring: Continuously monitoring the impact of vaccines on infection rates, severe outcomes, and identifying any potential adverse events.
  • Understanding Transmission Dynamics: Investigating how the virus spreads (e.g., airborne, droplet) to inform appropriate prevention strategies.

Lessons Learned from Smallpox and Polio Eradication for COVID-19:

While COVID-19 presents unique challenges, lessons from the successful eradication of smallpox and the ongoing efforts to eradicate polio offer valuable insights for pandemic management:

  • Strong Global Collaboration and Coordination: The eradication of smallpox was a testament to international cooperation under the World Health Organization (WHO). Similarly, polio eradication efforts involve a global partnership. For COVID-19, early and sustained international collaboration on research, vaccine development, and equitable distribution was crucial, though often hampered by political factors. Strengthening global health security infrastructure remains vital.  
  • Effective Surveillance and Case Finding: Smallpox eradication relied on active case finding and containment. Polio eradication uses environmental surveillance (testing sewage for the virus) in addition to case surveillance. For COVID-19, the challenge of asymptomatic transmission made traditional case finding less effective. However, enhancing surveillance systems, including wastewater surveillance and rapid diagnostic testing, can provide a broader picture of virus circulation.  
  • Potent and Widely Accessible Vaccines: The availability of highly effective vaccines was central to both smallpox and polio eradication. While COVID-19 vaccines were developed rapidly, ensuring equitable global access and addressing vaccine hesitancy remain significant challenges. Lessons from polio eradication programs on community engagement and culturally sensitive vaccine delivery strategies are relevant.  
  • Strong Public Health Infrastructure and Political Commitment: Both eradication efforts required sustained political will, financial investment, and a robust public health infrastructure for implementation. Maintaining long-term commitment and investing in public health systems are essential for managing the ongoing threat of COVID-19 and future pandemics.  
  • Targeted Interventions Based on Epidemiology: Ring vaccination was a key strategy in smallpox eradication, focusing vaccination efforts around confirmed cases. For polio, mass vaccination campaigns targeting vulnerable populations are crucial. For COVID-19, targeted vaccination strategies for high-risk groups and geographically focused interventions during outbreaks have been important.  
  • Importance of Public Education and Community Engagement: Building trust and ensuring community participation were vital for the success of both eradication programs. Addressing misinformation and engaging with communities to promote adherence to public health measures and vaccine uptake are crucial for COVID-19 control.

Benefits of Addressing Health Problems at the Population Level Versus the Individual Level:

Addressing health problems like infectious diseases at the population level offers significant advantages over solely focusing on individual interventions:

  • Greater Impact on Disease Burden: Population-level interventions, such as vaccination campaigns, mask mandates, and public health education, can reach a larger number of people simultaneously, leading to a greater reduction in overall disease transmission, morbidity, and mortality (Frieden, 2010). Focusing only on individuals might miss asymptomatic carriers or those who do not seek individual care, allowing the disease to continue spreading.
  • Prevention of Future Cases: Population-wide measures can interrupt transmission chains and prevent new infections, protecting not only those currently healthy but also future generations. For example, high vaccination coverage reduces the likelihood of outbreaks.
  • Addressing Social Determinants of Health: Population-level approaches can address broader social and environmental factors that influence health, such as access to clean water, sanitation, and healthcare infrastructure. These factors can disproportionately affect certain populations and contribute to disease spread. Individual interventions often fail to address these underlying issues.  
  • Cost-Effectiveness: While initial investment in population-level interventions can be substantial, they are often more cost-effective in the long run by preventing widespread illness and reducing the burden on the healthcare system (Beaglehole et al., 2010). Treating individual cases can be resource-intensive.
  • Equity: Population-level interventions can promote health equity by ensuring that preventive measures and health information reach all segments of the population, regardless of their socioeconomic status or access to individual healthcare. Individualized approaches can exacerbate existing health disparities.  

Supporting Evidence from Learning Resources and Walden Library:

This week’s learning resources likely emphasize the principles of epidemiology and the importance of public health approaches in controlling infectious diseases. Articles in the Walden Library would provide specific examples of how population-level interventions have been successful in managing pandemics and epidemics throughout history. For instance, research on the impact of national vaccination programs on childhood diseases or studies evaluating the effectiveness of public health campaigns during influenza outbreaks would support the benefits of a population-level approach. Furthermore, articles analyzing the social determinants of health and their role in disease transmission would highlight the limitations of solely focusing on individual-level interventions.

In the context of COVID-19, numerous studies available through the Walden Library would demonstrate the effectiveness of population-level measures like mask mandates, social distancing, and mass vaccination campaigns in reducing transmission rates and severe outcomes. Conversely, research highlighting disparities in COVID-19 outcomes based on socioeconomic factors would underscore the need for population-level interventions that address these underlying vulnerabilities.

Conclusion:

Understanding the distinct epidemiologic characteristics of diseases is crucial for developing effective control strategies. Lessons from the successful eradication of smallpox and the progress in polio eradication offer valuable insights for managing the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, particularly regarding global collaboration, surveillance, vaccination, and public health infrastructure. Addressing health problems like COVID-19 primarily at the population level offers significant benefits in terms of impact, prevention, cost-effectiveness, and equity compared to solely focusing on individual interventions. A robust public health approach, informed by epidemiological principles and implemented at the population level, is essential for mitigating the effects of current and future infectious disease threats.  

References:

Beaglehole, R., Bonita, R., Horton, R., Jousilahti, P., & Puska, P. (2010). Global health action: A brief history of the world’s major health challenges. Oxford University Press.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2012). Principles of epidemiology in public health practice: An introduction to applied epidemiology and biostatistics (3rd ed.). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

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