Structural functional theories of Talcott Parsons and Robert K. Merton

Talcott Parsons Talcott Parsons was an American sociologist who developed a theory of structural functionalism in the mid-20th century. Parsons's theory is based on the idea that society is a system of interrelated parts that work together to maintain order. Parsons identified four functional imperatives that all societies must fulfill in order to survive:

• Adaptation: The ability of a society to adapt to its environment.
• Goal attainment: The ability of a society to achieve its goals.
• Integration: The ability of a society to maintain social order.
• Latency: The ability of a society to reproduce itself.

Parsons also identified four subsystems of society that are responsible for fulfilling these functional imperatives:

• The economic system: Responsible for adaptation.
• The political system: Responsible for goal attainment.
• The social system: Responsible for integration.
• The cultural system: Responsible for latency.

Robert K. Merton Robert K. Merton was an American sociologist who was influenced by Parsons's work on structural functionalism. However, Merton argued that Parsons's theory was too simplistic and that it did not take into account the diversity of societies. Merton developed his own theory of structural functionalism, which he called "functional analysis." Merton's theory is based on the idea that social structures and cultural norms have both positive and negative functions. Positive functions are those that contribute to the stability and well-being of society. Negative functions are those that undermine the stability and well-being of society. Merton also identified two types of functional analysis: manifest functions and latent functions. Manifest functions are those that are intended and recognized by the participants in a social system. Latent functions are those that are unintended and unrecognized by the participants in a social system. Comparison of Parsons and Merton Parsons and Merton were both structural functionalists, but there were some important differences between their theories. Parsons's theory was more general and abstract, while Merton's theory was more specific and focused on the empirical evidence. Parsons's theory also emphasized the positive functions of social structures and cultural norms, while Merton's theory acknowledged that social structures and cultural norms can also have negative functions. Which theory is most useful? Both Parsons's and Merton's theories are useful for understanding the role of social structures and cultural norms in society. However, Merton's theory is more specific and focused on the empirical evidence, which makes it more useful for conducting sociological research. Conclusion Parsons and Merton were both important figures in the development of structural functionalism. Their theories have been influential in sociology and have helped us to understand the role of social structures and cultural norms in society. Here are some additional concepts from Parsons's and Merton's theories:

• Pattern variables: Parsons identified five pattern variables that are used to analyze social systems. These pattern variables are:
  • Affectivity vs. affective neutrality: The extent to which emotions are expressed in social relationships.
  • Diffuseness vs. specificity: The extent to which social relationships are defined in terms of specific roles or statuses.
  • Ascription vs. achievement: The extent to which social positions are assigned on the basis of birth or merit.
  • Universalism vs. particularism: The extent to which social norms are applied equally to everyone or only to certain groups of people.
  • Collective vs. individual orientation: The extent to which individuals are motivated by the needs of the group or by their own personal needs.
• Role strain: The conflict that arises when individuals are expected to fulfill incompatible roles.
• Deviance: Behavior that violates the norms of a society.

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Sample Solution

Talcott Parsons was an American sociologist who developed a theory of structural functionalism in the mid-20th century.