The Criteria of Science and Research Scenarios

by | Aug 28, 2023 | pyschology

 

1. Identify and briefly describe the three criteria that help to define science.
2. State the five main sections of a journal article. Identify one section and describe why you would go to that section when skimming an article (e.g., what would you expect to find in that section?)
Test the hypothesis presented in the follow problem: Each of the cards below has a number on one side and a letter on the other side. Two of the cards have their letter side showing and two have their number side showing. Here is a rule: If a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even number on the other side”.
A D 4 7
Answer the problem and explain how it relates to hypothesis testing, proof, and disproof as discussed in the text.
3. In order to check that the rule is true or false, which card or cards below would you turn over? Turn over only the card or cards that you need to check to be sure.
4. Explain how it relates to hypothesis testing, proof, and disproof as discussed in the text.
Answer the following questions related to its associated scenario. (Helpful hint: the “Interact: Introductory Concepts — Practice Worksheet” for this module covers these topics!).
Scenario I: In a study of the effects of nicotine on concentration, participants who smoke are compared to those who do not on a measure of concentration. Identify the independent variable and dependent variable in this study.l.s. the independent variable a manipulated variable or a participant variable?
5. What is the independent variable in this study?
6. What is the dependent variable in this study?
7. Is the independent variable manipulated or is it a participant / subject variable?
8. What type of research method (descriptive, predictive, quasi-experimental, or experimental)? is used in this study?
9. What is a potential confounding variable in this scenario? You must justify your answer to earn points on this question.
Scenario 2: In a study comparing learning condition on knowledge acquisition, participants are randomly assigned to one of the two learning conditions – collaborative group learning or traditional lecture/discussion method.
10. What is the independent variable in this study?
11. What is the dependent variable in this study?
12. Is the independent variable manipulated or is it a participant / subject variable?
3. In order to check that the rule is true or false, which card or cards below would you turn over? Turn over only the card or cards that you need to check to be sure.
4. Explain how it relates to hypothesis testing, proof, and disproof as discussed in the text.
Answer the following questions related to its associated scenario. (Helpful hint: the “Interact: Introductory Concepts — Practice Worksheet” for this module covers these topics!).
Scenario I: In a study of the effects of nicotine on concentration, participants who smoke are compared to those who do not on a measure of concentration. Identify the independent variable and dependent variable in this study.l.s. the independent variable a manipulated variable or a participant variable?
5. What is the independent variable in this study?
6. What is the dependent variable in this study?
7. Is the independent variable manipulated or is it a participant / subject variable?
8. What type of research method (descriptive, predictive, quasi-experimental, or experimental)? is used in this study?
9. What is a potential confounding variable in this scenario? You must justify your answer to earn points on this question.
Scenario 2: In a study comparing learning condition on knowledge acquisition, participants are randomly assigned to one of the two learning conditions – collaborative group learning or traditional lecture/discussion method.
10. What is the independent variable in this study?
11. What is the dependent variable in this study?
12. Is the independent variable manipulated or is it a participant / subject variable?
13. What type of research method (descriptive, predictive, quasi-experimental, or experimental)? is used in this study?
14. What is a potential confounding variable in this scenario? You must justify your answer to earn points on this question.

 

Sample solution

Dante Alighieri played a critical role in the literature world through his poem Divine Comedy that was written in the 14th century. The poem contains Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. The Inferno is a description of the nine circles of torment that are found on the earth. It depicts the realms of the people that have gone against the spiritual values and who, instead, have chosen bestial appetite, violence, or fraud and malice. The nine circles of hell are limbo, lust, gluttony, greed and wrath. Others are heresy, violence, fraud, and treachery. The purpose of this paper is to examine the Dante’s Inferno in the perspective of its portrayal of God’s image and the justification of hell. 

In this epic poem, God is portrayed as a super being guilty of multiple weaknesses including being egotistic, unjust, and hypocritical. Dante, in this poem, depicts God as being more human than divine by challenging God’s omnipotence. Additionally, the manner in which Dante describes Hell is in full contradiction to the morals of God as written in the Bible. When god arranges Hell to flatter Himself, He commits egotism, a sin that is common among human beings (Cheney, 2016). The weakness is depicted in Limbo and on the Gate of Hell where, for instance, God sends those who do not worship Him to Hell. This implies that failure to worship Him is a sin.


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God is also depicted as lacking justice in His actions thus removing the godly image. The injustice is portrayed by the manner in which the sodomites and opportunists are treated. The opportunists are subjected to banner chasing in their lives after death followed by being stung by insects and maggots. They are known to having done neither good nor bad during their lifetimes and, therefore, justice could have demanded that they be granted a neutral punishment having lived a neutral life. The sodomites are also punished unfairly by God when Brunetto Lattini is condemned to hell despite being a good leader (Babor, T. F., McGovern, T., & Robaina, K. (2017). While he commited sodomy, God chooses to ignore all the other good deeds that Brunetto did.

Finally, God is also portrayed as being hypocritical in His actions, a sin that further diminishes His godliness and makes Him more human. A case in point is when God condemns the sin of egotism and goes ahead to commit it repeatedly. Proverbs 29:23 states that “arrogance will bring your downfall, but if you are humble, you will be respected.” When Slattery condemns Dante’s human state as being weak, doubtful, and limited, he is proving God’s hypocrisy because He is also human (Verdicchio, 2015). The actions of God in Hell as portrayed by Dante are inconsistent with the Biblical literature. Both Dante and God are prone to making mistakes, something common among human beings thus making God more human.

To wrap it up, Dante portrays God is more human since He commits the same sins that humans commit: egotism, hypocrisy, and injustice. Hell is justified as being a destination for victims of the mistakes committed by God. The Hell is presented as being a totally different place as compared to what is written about it in the Bible. As a result, reading through the text gives an image of God who is prone to the very mistakes common to humans thus ripping Him off His lofty status of divine and, instead, making Him a mere human. Whether or not Dante did it intentionally is subject to debate but one thing is clear in the poem: the misconstrued notion of God is revealed to future generations.

 

References

Babor, T. F., McGovern, T., & Robaina, K. (2017). Dante’s inferno: Seven deadly sins in scientific publishing and how to avoid them. Addiction Science: A Guide for the Perplexed, 267.

Cheney, L. D. G. (2016). Illustrations for Dante’s Inferno: A Comparative Study of Sandro Botticelli, Giovanni Stradano, and Federico Zuccaro. Cultural and Religious Studies, 4(8), 487.

Verdicchio, M. (2015). Irony and Desire in Dante’s” Inferno” 27. Italica, 285-297.

Sample Answer

Sample Answer

The Criteria of Science and Research Scenarios

Introduction: The field of science is driven by inquiry and evidence-based research. In order to conduct valid scientific investigations, certain criteria must be followed. This essay will first discuss the three criteria that help to define science. It will then analyze two research scenarios, identifying the independent and dependent variables, the research method used, and potential confounding variables.

1. The Three Criteria that Define Science

Empirical Evidence: Science relies on empirical evidence obtained through observation, experimentation, and measurement. It emphasizes the importance of collecting data objectively and systematically.
Testability: Scientific claims must be testable through controlled experiments or observations. This means that they can be proven or disproven based on evidence.
Falsifiability: Scientific hypotheses and theories must be falsifiable, meaning that they can potentially be proven false. This allows for the continuous evaluation and refinement of scientific knowledge.
2. Sections of a Journal Article The five main sections of a journal article are:

Abstract: Provides a concise summary of the study, including the research question, methods, results, and conclusions.
Introduction: Presents the background information, research question, and objectives of the study.
Methods: Describes in detail the procedures, materials, and techniques used to conduct the study.
Results: Presents the findings of the study, often through tables, figures, and statistical analyses.
Discussion: Interprets the results, discusses their implications, and compares them with previous research.
If skimming an article, one would typically go to the “Abstract” section. It provides a brief overview of the study’s main points, allowing readers to quickly grasp the purpose and findings of the research without delving into the specifics.

3. Hypothesis Testing and Disproof In the given problem about cards with numbers and letters, the hypothesis presented is “If a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even number on the other side.” To test this hypothesis, one would need to turn over the cards that are essential for verification:

A: Since it has a letter side showing, turning it over would reveal whether it has a vowel or not.
7: This card needs to be turned over to check if it has an even number on the other side.
This scenario relates to hypothesis testing as it involves formulating a hypothesis (the rule about vowels and even numbers) and conducting an experiment (turning over the cards) to gather evidence supporting or contradicting the hypothesis. If any of the turned-over cards do not align with the hypothesis (e.g., if card A does not have a vowel), it would serve as a disproof that refutes the rule proposed.

4. Research Scenario I In Scenario I, which investigates the effects of nicotine on concentration, the following questions will be addressed:

The independent variable in this study is nicotine consumption (smoking).
The dependent variable in this study is concentration levels.
The independent variable is manipulated since participants are divided into two groups based on their smoking habits.
The research method used in this study is experimental since participants are assigned to different conditions (smokers vs. non-smokers) to assess the impact of nicotine on concentration.
A potential confounding variable in this scenario could be caffeine consumption, as it may also affect concentration levels. To justify this, it is important to consider that caffeine intake is often associated with smoking habits and could influence concentration independently.
5. Research Scenario II In Scenario II, which compares learning conditions on knowledge acquisition, we will address the following questions:

The independent variable in this study is learning condition (collaborative group learning vs. traditional lecture/discussion method).
The dependent variable in this study is knowledge acquisition.
The independent variable is manipulated since participants are randomly assigned to different learning conditions.
The research method used in this study is experimental since participants are randomly assigned to different learning conditions to evaluate their impact on knowledge acquisition.
A potential confounding variable in this scenario could be prior knowledge or experience related to the topic being studied. This variable may differ among participants and could influence knowledge acquisition independently.

Conclusion: Science adheres to specific criteria such as empirical evidence, testability, and falsifiability. These criteria ensure that scientific investigations are grounded in evidence and can be objectively evaluated. In research scenarios, identifying independent and dependent variables, selecting appropriate research methods, and considering potential confounding variables are crucial for conducting rigorous studies that contribute to scientific knowledge.

 

 

 

 

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