Explain blood typing and how it is used to avoid adverse reactions following blood transfusions
Discuss the concept of ABO blood groups.
Include the Rh antigen.
Summarize the antigens and antibodies associated with Type O, Type A, Type B, and Type AB blood.
Explain compatible blood types, universal donors, and universal recipients.
Sample solution
Dante Alighieri played a critical role in the literature world through his poem Divine Comedy that was written in the 14th century. The poem contains Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. The Inferno is a description of the nine circles of torment that are found on the earth. It depicts the realms of the people that have gone against the spiritual values and who, instead, have chosen bestial appetite, violence, or fraud and malice. The nine circles of hell are limbo, lust, gluttony, greed and wrath. Others are heresy, violence, fraud, and treachery. The purpose of this paper is to examine the Dante’s Inferno in the perspective of its portrayal of God’s image and the justification of hell.
In this epic poem, God is portrayed as a super being guilty of multiple weaknesses including being egotistic, unjust, and hypocritical. Dante, in this poem, depicts God as being more human than divine by challenging God’s omnipotence. Additionally, the manner in which Dante describes Hell is in full contradiction to the morals of God as written in the Bible. When god arranges Hell to flatter Himself, He commits egotism, a sin that is common among human beings (Cheney, 2016). The weakness is depicted in Limbo and on the Gate of Hell where, for instance, God sends those who do not worship Him to Hell. This implies that failure to worship Him is a sin.
God is also depicted as lacking justice in His actions thus removing the godly image. The injustice is portrayed by the manner in which the sodomites and opportunists are treated. The opportunists are subjected to banner chasing in their lives after death followed by being stung by insects and maggots. They are known to having done neither good nor bad during their lifetimes and, therefore, justice could have demanded that they be granted a neutral punishment having lived a neutral life. The sodomites are also punished unfairly by God when Brunetto Lattini is condemned to hell despite being a good leader (Babor, T. F., McGovern, T., & Robaina, K. (2017). While he commited sodomy, God chooses to ignore all the other good deeds that Brunetto did.
Finally, God is also portrayed as being hypocritical in His actions, a sin that further diminishes His godliness and makes Him more human. A case in point is when God condemns the sin of egotism and goes ahead to commit it repeatedly. Proverbs 29:23 states that “arrogance will bring your downfall, but if you are humble, you will be respected.” When Slattery condemns Dante’s human state as being weak, doubtful, and limited, he is proving God’s hypocrisy because He is also human (Verdicchio, 2015). The actions of God in Hell as portrayed by Dante are inconsistent with the Biblical literature. Both Dante and God are prone to making mistakes, something common among human beings thus making God more human.
To wrap it up, Dante portrays God is more human since He commits the same sins that humans commit: egotism, hypocrisy, and injustice. Hell is justified as being a destination for victims of the mistakes committed by God. The Hell is presented as being a totally different place as compared to what is written about it in the Bible. As a result, reading through the text gives an image of God who is prone to the very mistakes common to humans thus ripping Him off His lofty status of divine and, instead, making Him a mere human. Whether or not Dante did it intentionally is subject to debate but one thing is clear in the poem: the misconstrued notion of God is revealed to future generations.
References
Babor, T. F., McGovern, T., & Robaina, K. (2017). Dante’s inferno: Seven deadly sins in scientific publishing and how to avoid them. Addiction Science: A Guide for the Perplexed, 267.
Cheney, L. D. G. (2016). Illustrations for Dante’s Inferno: A Comparative Study of Sandro Botticelli, Giovanni Stradano, and Federico Zuccaro. Cultural and Religious Studies, 4(8), 487.
Verdicchio, M. (2015). Irony and Desire in Dante’s” Inferno” 27. Italica, 285-297.
Sample Answer
Sample Answer
The Significance of Blood Typing in Transfusions: Understanding ABO Blood Groups, Rh Antigen, and Compatibility
Blood typing plays a critical role in ensuring safe and successful blood transfusions. By identifying an individual’s blood type, healthcare professionals can match the donor and recipient to minimize the risk of adverse reactions. This essay will delve into the concept of ABO blood groups, the role of the Rh antigen, the antigens and antibodies associated with different blood types, and the importance of compatible blood types, universal donors, and universal recipients.
ABO Blood Groups
The ABO blood group system is one of the most crucial factors in blood typing. It categorizes blood into four main types: Type A, Type B, Type AB, and Type O. These blood types are determined by the presence or absence of specific antigens on red blood cells (RBCs).
Type A blood has A antigens on the surface of RBCs.
Type B blood has B antigens on the surface of RBCs.
Type AB blood has both A and B antigens on the surface of RBCs.
Type O blood has neither A nor B antigens on the surface of RBCs.
In addition to the A and B antigens, individuals also have antibodies in their plasma that are naturally produced against the antigens they do not possess. For example, individuals with Type A blood have anti-B antibodies, while those with Type B blood have anti-A antibodies.
Rh Antigen
In addition to ABO blood groups, another significant factor in blood typing is the presence or absence of the Rh antigen (also known as the D antigen). The Rh antigen categorizes blood as Rh-positive (Rh+) or Rh-negative (Rh-). Individuals with Rh+ blood have the Rh antigen on their RBCs, while those with Rh- blood lack this antigen.
The presence or absence of the Rh antigen becomes crucial during blood transfusions and pregnancy. If an Rh- individual receives Rh+ blood or if an Rh- mother carries an Rh+ fetus, it can trigger an immune response leading to the production of antibodies against the Rh antigen, potentially causing complications in subsequent transfusions or pregnancies.
Antigens and Antibodies by Blood Type
Different blood types have specific combinations of antigens on RBCs and corresponding antibodies in plasma:
Type O: Has neither A nor B antigens on RBCs. Individuals with Type O blood are considered universal donors as their blood does not contain antigens that can trigger reactions in recipients. However, they have both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in their plasma.
Type A: Has A antigens on RBCs and anti-B antibodies in plasma. They can donate to individuals with Type A and Type AB blood.
Type B: Has B antigens on RBCs and anti-A antibodies in plasma. They can donate to individuals with Type B and Type AB blood.
Type AB: Has both A and B antigens on RBCs but no antibodies against either antigen in plasma. Individuals with Type AB blood are considered universal recipients as they can receive blood from any type (A, B, AB, or O).
Compatible Blood Types, Universal Donors, and Universal Recipients
To avoid adverse reactions during blood transfusions, compatible blood types must be matched:
Individuals with Type O negative (O-) blood are considered universal donors as their blood can be given to recipients of any blood type.
Individuals with Type AB positive (AB+) blood are considered universal recipients as they can receive blood from donors of any type.
For other blood types:
Type A positive (A+): Can receive blood from A+ and O+ donors.
Type B positive (B+): Can receive blood from B+ and O+ donors.
Type AB negative (AB-): Can receive blood from all Rh-negative donors (O-, A-, B-, AB-) in addition to all Rh-positive donors.
Type O positive (O+): Can receive blood from O+ and A+, B+, AB+ donors.
Matching compatible blood types is essential in preventing adverse reactions such as hemolysis (destruction of RBCs), transfusion reactions, and other complications that can endanger the recipient’s life.
In conclusion, understanding the concept of ABO blood groups, the role of the Rh antigen, and compatibility is crucial for safe and successful blood transfusions. Blood typing allows healthcare professionals to select compatible donors for recipients, minimizing the risk of adverse reactions and ensuring better patient outcomes.
References:
American Red Cross. Blood Types. Retrieved from: https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/blood-types.html
Daniels G. Human Blood Groups. 3rd edition. Wiley; 2013.
Liumbruno GM, Franchini M. Beyond immunohaematology: the role of the ABO blood group in human diseases. Blood Transfus. 2013;11(4):491-499.
Westhoff CM. The Rh System: Clinical Significance and Methods of Analysis. Transfus Med Hemother. 2015;42(2):55-67.
Simon TL, McCullough J, Snyder EL, Solheim BG, Strauss RG. Rossi’s Principles of Transfusion Medicine. 4th edition. Wiley; 2009.
