Sample solution
Dante Alighieri played a critical role in the literature world through his poem Divine Comedy that was written in the 14th century. The poem contains Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. The Inferno is a description of the nine circles of torment that are found on the earth. It depicts the realms of the people that have gone against the spiritual values and who, instead, have chosen bestial appetite, violence, or fraud and malice. The nine circles of hell are limbo, lust, gluttony, greed and wrath. Others are heresy, violence, fraud, and treachery. The purpose of this paper is to examine the Dante’s Inferno in the perspective of its portrayal of God’s image and the justification of hell.
In this epic poem, God is portrayed as a super being guilty of multiple weaknesses including being egotistic, unjust, and hypocritical. Dante, in this poem, depicts God as being more human than divine by challenging God’s omnipotence. Additionally, the manner in which Dante describes Hell is in full contradiction to the morals of God as written in the Bible. When god arranges Hell to flatter Himself, He commits egotism, a sin that is common among human beings (Cheney, 2016). The weakness is depicted in Limbo and on the Gate of Hell where, for instance, God sends those who do not worship Him to Hell. This implies that failure to worship Him is a sin.
God is also depicted as lacking justice in His actions thus removing the godly image. The injustice is portrayed by the manner in which the sodomites and opportunists are treated. The opportunists are subjected to banner chasing in their lives after death followed by being stung by insects and maggots. They are known to having done neither good nor bad during their lifetimes and, therefore, justice could have demanded that they be granted a neutral punishment having lived a neutral life. The sodomites are also punished unfairly by God when Brunetto Lattini is condemned to hell despite being a good leader (Babor, T. F., McGovern, T., & Robaina, K. (2017). While he commited sodomy, God chooses to ignore all the other good deeds that Brunetto did.
Finally, God is also portrayed as being hypocritical in His actions, a sin that further diminishes His godliness and makes Him more human. A case in point is when God condemns the sin of egotism and goes ahead to commit it repeatedly. Proverbs 29:23 states that “arrogance will bring your downfall, but if you are humble, you will be respected.” When Slattery condemns Dante’s human state as being weak, doubtful, and limited, he is proving God’s hypocrisy because He is also human (Verdicchio, 2015). The actions of God in Hell as portrayed by Dante are inconsistent with the Biblical literature. Both Dante and God are prone to making mistakes, something common among human beings thus making God more human.
To wrap it up, Dante portrays God is more human since He commits the same sins that humans commit: egotism, hypocrisy, and injustice. Hell is justified as being a destination for victims of the mistakes committed by God. The Hell is presented as being a totally different place as compared to what is written about it in the Bible. As a result, reading through the text gives an image of God who is prone to the very mistakes common to humans thus ripping Him off His lofty status of divine and, instead, making Him a mere human. Whether or not Dante did it intentionally is subject to debate but one thing is clear in the poem: the misconstrued notion of God is revealed to future generations.
References
Babor, T. F., McGovern, T., & Robaina, K. (2017). Dante’s inferno: Seven deadly sins in scientific publishing and how to avoid them. Addiction Science: A Guide for the Perplexed, 267.
Cheney, L. D. G. (2016). Illustrations for Dante’s Inferno: A Comparative Study of Sandro Botticelli, Giovanni Stradano, and Federico Zuccaro. Cultural and Religious Studies, 4(8), 487.
Verdicchio, M. (2015). Irony and Desire in Dante’s” Inferno” 27. Italica, 285-297.
Sample Answer
Sample Answer
1. The Usefulness of the Sharpe Ratio
The Sharpe Ratio is a widely used computation in finance that helps investors assess the risk-adjusted return of an investment. It measures the excess return earned per unit of risk taken by an investment, considering both the expected return (E(r)) and the standard deviation (σ) of the investment.
From the perspective of E(r) (expected return), the Sharpe Ratio helps investors evaluate whether an investment provides adequate compensation for the level of risk taken. It considers the risk-free rate as a benchmark and calculates the excess return above this rate. A higher Sharpe Ratio indicates that the investment is generating a higher return for the level of risk taken, making it more attractive to investors.
From the perspective of σ (standard deviation), the Sharpe Ratio takes into account the volatility or variability of returns. By including standard deviation in the denominator, the Sharpe Ratio penalizes investments with higher risk. This is because higher volatility increases the uncertainty and potential downside of an investment. Therefore, a lower standard deviation results in a higher Sharpe Ratio, signaling a more favorable risk-return profile.
In summary, the Sharpe Ratio is a useful computation as it combines both expected return and standard deviation to provide investors with a measure of risk-adjusted performance. It enables investors to compare different investments and determine which ones offer a better trade-off between expected return and risk.
2. The Relationship Between Number of Stocks in a Portfolio and Risk Reduction
The assumption that the relationship between the number of stocks in a portfolio and risk reduction is perfectly linear is not entirely accurate. While adding more stocks to a portfolio can potentially reduce specific risks associated with individual stocks, such as company-specific events or industry-specific risks, it does not guarantee a linear reduction in overall portfolio risk.
Diversification is a key principle when constructing a portfolio. By holding a diversified portfolio consisting of different asset classes, sectors, and geographies, investors can reduce unsystematic or idiosyncratic risks. These risks are specific to individual investments and can be mitigated through diversification.
However, systematic risk, also known as market risk, cannot be eliminated through diversification. Systematic risk refers to factors that affect the entire market or a specific segment of it, such as economic downturns, interest rate changes, or geopolitical events. As these factors impact all stocks in the market, adding more stocks to a portfolio does not eliminate systematic risk.
Therefore, while diversification can help reduce unsystematic risk, it does not provide complete protection against market-wide risks. The relationship between the number of stocks in a portfolio and risk reduction is not perfectly linear but follows diminishing marginal returns. Initially, adding more stocks to a portfolio reduces risk significantly, but as the number of stocks increases further, the reduction in risk becomes less pronounced.
In conclusion, while diversification through adding more stocks to a portfolio can reduce unsystematic risk, it does not eliminate systematic risk entirely. The relationship between the number of stocks and risk reduction is not perfectly linear but subject to diminishing marginal returns.
3. The Impact of Standard Deviation(s) on the Treynor Ratio
The Treynor Ratio is a performance measure that assesses the risk-adjusted return of an investment relative to its systematic risk. It is calculated by dividing the excess return of an investment over the risk-free rate by its beta (systematic risk).
The impact of standard deviation on the Treynor Ratio is indirect but important. Standard deviation represents the total volatility or total risk of an investment, including both systematic and unsystematic risks.
In the context of the Treynor Ratio, standard deviation affects the systematic risk component, which is captured by beta. Beta measures how closely an investment’s returns move in relation to the overall market returns. A higher standard deviation implies greater volatility and uncertainty in an investment’s returns, which can lead to higher systematic risk and consequently a higher beta.
As beta is in the denominator of the Treynor Ratio formula, an increase in systematic risk (reflected by a higher beta) would result in a lower Treynor Ratio. This indicates that for a given level of excess return over the risk-free rate, an investment with higher standard deviation (higher systematic risk) would have a lower Treynor Ratio compared to an investment with lower standard deviation (lower systematic risk).
Therefore, when explaining the impact of standard deviation on the Treynor Ratio to your friend studying for the CFA examination, you would highlight that higher standard deviation can increase systematic risk captured by beta, leading to a lower Treynor Ratio. Lower standard deviation would result in lower systematic risk and potentially a higher Treynor Ratio for the same excess return.
4. Higher Stock Pricing Variance and Overall Risk
When responding to the newly-hired co-worker’s statement that higher stock pricing variance is synonymous with lower overall risk, it is important to clarify that this statement is incorrect.
Stock pricing variance refers to the dispersion or variability of stock prices around their average value. A higher stock pricing variance indicates greater price volatility or uncertainty about future stock prices.
However, from a risk perspective, higher stock pricing variance does not necessarily mean lower overall risk. Risk encompasses not only price volatility but also factors such as financial performance, industry dynamics, competitive landscape, and macroeconomic conditions.
While higher stock pricing variance may imply greater short-term price fluctuations and potentially larger potential gains or losses, it does not capture other important dimensions of risk. For instance, high pricing variance may be associated with increased liquidity risk or operational risks within a company.
To assess overall risk comprehensively, investors need to consider various factors beyond stock pricing variance. These may include fundamental analysis of company financials, evaluating industry trends and competitive positioning, analyzing macroeconomic indicators, and assessing management quality and strategy.
Therefore, it is crucial to emphasize that higher stock pricing variance alone should not be equated with lower overall risk. Investors need to take into account multiple dimensions of risk to form a comprehensive understanding of an investment’s risk profile.
5. Distinctions between Correlation and Covariance
As an intern at an asset management company tasked with explaining the distinctions between correlation and covariance, you would present the following details:
Definition: Covariance measures the extent to which two variables move together in tandem. It quantifies the relationship between two variables by calculating how their values deviate from their respective means simultaneously.
Correlation, on the other hand, measures both the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. It ranges between -1 and +1, where -1 indicates a perfect negative linear relationship, +1 indicates a perfect positive linear relationship, and 0 indicates no linear relationship.
Units: Covariance is measured in units derived from multiplying the units of both variables (e.g., dollars squared). Correlation is unitless and only provides information on the strength and direction of the relationship.
Scale: Covariance does not have a fixed scale since it depends on the magnitude of the variables being measured. Correlation always ranges between -1 and +1, providing a standardized measure for comparison.
Interpretation: Covariance alone does not provide a clear interpretation as its value depends on the scale of variables being measured. Correlation, however, provides a standardized interpretation. A correlation close to -1 or +1 indicates a strong linear relationship, while a correlation close to 0 suggests no linear relationship.
Properties: Covariance can take any value depending on data points’ deviations from their respective means. Correlation always falls within -1 to +1 due to normalization.
Applicability: Covariance is used mainly for calculating portfolio variance or covariance matrix for multiple assets. Correlation is used for determining relationships between variables without considering their magnitudes or units.
